Knowledge and understanding

Jason Stanley has tried to revive the description theory of reference for n atural kind terms by restricting it to experts. On his view, being an exper t about elms requires having uniquely identifying knowledge about elms, kno wledge that is conventionally, associated with the term 'elm' and that fixe s its reference, But Stanley's attempt fails. For, as 1 show, even experts about elms can lack such knowledge by being epistemically irresponsible, mi staken or just plain cautious. The description theory of reference is false even when restricted to the most expert users of a term.