The rapid emergence of genetic modification in world agriculture: contested risks and benefits

There has been a rapid expansion in the commercial cultivation of genetical ly modified crops, rising from the first plantings in 1995 to 44.5 million hectares worldwide in 2000, most of which have grown in North America. Thou gh there are sharp divisions in opinions on benefits and risk, genetic modi fication (GM) does not represent a single, homogenous technology. Each appl ication brings different potential benefits and risks for different stakeho lders. This paper reviews recent scientific progress and future application s using a new typology of three generations of genetically modified organis ms (GMOs) ranged against five types of scientific application. Agricultural GMOs pose a range of potential environmental and health risks. An analysis of recent independent field and scientific evidence from industrialized co untries summarizes the current state of knowledge on seven types of risk th at apply to all agricultural systems: (1) horizontal gene flow; (2) new for ms of resistance and pest problems; (3) recombination to produce new pathog ens; (4) direct and indirect effects of novel toxins; (5) loss of biodivers ity from changes to farm practices; (6) allergenic and immune system reacti ons; and (7) antibiotic resistance marker genes. There remain highly contra sting positions taken by different stakeholders over GMOs. A review of thre e debates explains claims and counter-claims for (1) genetic modification a s technological fix or contributor to sustainability; (2) genetic modificat ion as driver of corporate power or friend of farmer; and (3) genetic modif ication as feeder of the world or eliminator of alternatives.