THE ROLE OF INSTRUCTION IN LEARNING TO READ - PREVENTING READING FAILURE IN AT-RISK CHILDREN

First and 2nd graders (N = 285) receiving Title 1 services received 1 of 3 kinds of classroom reading programs: direct instruction in letter -sound correspondences practiced in decodable text (direct code); less direct instruction in systematic sound-spelling patterns embedded in connected text (embedded code); and implicit instruction in the alphab etic code while reading connected text (implicit code). Children recei ving direct code instruction improved in word reading at a faster rate and had higher word-recognition skills than those receiving implicit code instruction. Effects of instructional group on word recognition w ere moderated by initial levels of phonological processing and were ma st apparent in children with poorer initial phonological processing sk ills. Group differences in reading comprehension paralleled those for word recognition but were less robust. Groups did not differ in spelli ng achievement or in vocabulary growth. Results show advantages for re ading instructional programs that emphasize explicit instruction in th e alphabetic principle for at-risk children.