A multi-level theory of self-serving behavior in and by organizations

Self-serving is defined as exhibiting self-enhancing perceptions, taking un due credit for success, avoiding due responsibility for failure, or making self-flattering presentations. As such, it is a bias indicating some distor tion of reality either to the self or to others. A multi-level theory is of fered which proposes that self-serving is functionally equivalent for indiv iduals, groups, and organizations. Core causes of self-serving include iden tity protection and the pursuit or protection of material resources. Uncert ainty and retroactive scrutiny are argued to exacerbate self-serving tenden cies. Proactive scrutiny is expected to dampen these tendencies. Consequenc es of self-serving include the maintenance of deviant behavior, actor-obser ver conflict, and the acquisition of material and identity-related benefits . Self-serving is argued to be relevant to a wide variety of organizational phenomena at several levels, including performance appraisal, escalation o f commitment, unethical behavior, intergroup conflict, institutional proces ses, and agency problems. The theory addresses several paradoxes of organiz ational life and several theoretical debates in the organizational sciences .